In contrast to the motivations, which had led Muslims to establish their Empire, "the growth of the British Empire was due in large part to ongoing competition for resources and markets, which existed over a period of centuries between England and her Continental rivals, Spain, France and Holland. During the reign of Elizabeth I, England set up trading companies in Turkey, Russia, and the East Indies, explored the coast of North America, and established colonies there. In the early seventeenth century those colonies were expanded and the systematic colonization of Ulster in Ireland got underway.

The first British Empire was a mercantile one. Under both the Stuarts and Cromwell, the mercantilist outlines of further colonization and Empire-building became more and more apparent. Until the early nineteenth century, the primary purpose of Imperialist policies was to facilitate the acquisition of as much foreign territory as possible, both as a source of raw materials and in order to provide real or potential markets for British manufactures. The mercantilists advocated in theory, and sought in practice, trade monopolies which would insure that Britain's exports would exceed its imports. A profitable balance of trade, it was believed, would provide the wealth necessary to maintain and expand the empire. After ultimately successful wars with the Dutch, the French, and the Spanish in the seventeenth century, Britain managed to acquire most of the eastern coast of North America, the St. Lawrence basin in Canada, territories in the Carribean, stations in Africa for the acquisition of slaves, and important interests in India."

As we can note from the above narration, the British had set sail across the oceans for their economic reasons; the Muslims invaded various countries to fulfill their personal and collective lust and greed. The British siphoned off their ill-gotten wealth from their colonies to their homeland in order to make it strong and powerful; Muslims squandered their ill-gotten wealth on their self-aggrandizement. The British, made arrogant by their power and successes, considered their subjects inferior to themselves; Muslims, influenced by their Quran, did not treat their subjects any better. The British encouraged their subjects to follow their Masters' ways of life; Muslims forced theirs to abandon not only their religions, but also to immerse themselves in the study of the Quran in order to better their lives in this world and the world hereafter.

On account of the two divergent motivations that each of the two Empires pursued during their heydays, we can see their impacts even today: Britain, although thrown out of all of its colonies a long time ago, still continues to remain one of the world's powerful and prosperous nations; The Muslim Empire, which had dominated almost one third of the World's landmass for over one thousand years, has not only gone to the dustbin of history, the ill-effect it has left on its various component states are still being felt by their unfortunate citizens.

The present state of the Muslim Nations


I learned from the list of the OIC Member Nations that there are 57 Muslim countries in the world today. Many of them are insignificant; hence neither the world pays them any importance, nor do we read or hear much about them in the newspapers, or on the wavelengths of our Radio and Television Stations. It does not mean that all of the insignificant Muslim states have always remained anonymous; in fact, some of them, like Bangladesh, have achieved world-wide reputation for reasons unique to themselves: Bangladesh, for example, is known to the world community not only for the floods and cyclones and the devastations these cause periodically to its people; it is also known for abject poverty, its people's propensity for social and political violence as well as for the levels of moral, political, economic and social corruptions, generally indulged in by its "government servants" and the so-called "educated" citizens.

Of the 57 Muslim nations, 29 belong to the category of the "Least Developed Nations." Out of the remaining 28, I consider only one, i.e. Turkey, to be a Semi-Developed Nation, whilst the rest, in my judgment, are still "Under Developed Countries."

Once ruled over in an unbroken line by thirty-six members of a family for seven centuries, which they had begun in the 13th century and was forced to end in the first part of the 20th century; and once having been the seat of Ottoman Empire and the Islamic Caliphate, Turkey had also once become the "sick man" of Europe, an ignominious title conferred on it, in the first quarter of the 20th century, by the developed or fast developing nations of the Christian West. Unable to live any longer with indignity, Mustafa Kamal Ataturk abolished the Muslim Caliphate in 1924, and founded the Republic of Turkey. Despite getting rid of the Islamic influence from the governmental apparatuses, Turkey has not, as yet, found the peace it needs in order to develop itself into a "developed country" due, mainly, to the Islamic influence that still continues to inflict the lives of its pre-dominantly Muslim citizens. Despite, again, having a GDP of $489.7 Billion-the highest among all the 57 Muslim countries- and an external debt of $ 118.3 Billion (both being estimated numbers for 2002), Turkey still struggles to achieve, for its people, a standard of life, which would qualify it to become a member of the World's Developed Nations' community. Nevertheless, with the tight rope it has been having on its Muslim citizenry, and subject to peace returning to the Middle East relatively soon, I expect Turkey, to become, from among all the Muslim countries, a "Developed Country" in the near future. Pinning my hope on its future prospects, I took the liberty of calling Turkey a "Semi-Developed Nation," although Turkey defined itself to be a "Developing Country" by joining the Club of the D-8, which also has Iran, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Egypt, Indonesia, Malaysia and Nigeria as its charter members.

Minus Turkey, let us now consider the economic health of the remaining 27 "Under Developed" Muslim Countries. According to the estimated statistics available for 2002, all the 27 Muslim countries had a combined GDP of 2.562 trillion Dollars (Source: CIA: World Fact Book). Muslim nations have this seemingly large GDP for one single reason: At least, 15 of them have, and been living on the export of oil. Without this natural resource, all of them would have barely existed, and that too, with the help of the Christian World.

Among all the 27 "Under Developed Muslim Countries," Iran has the largest GDP, it being $458.30 trillion (estimate for 2002), with a foreign debt of $ 8.7 billion, but having, at the same time, a huge foreign exchange reserve of $15.00 billion at its disposal in 2003. With a landmass of 1.648 Million Sq. km., a population of 68.279 Million of people (both estimate for 2002) and a rich past history, bolstered by its natural resources, Iran could have become a developed nation a long time ago. But it has not. The reason for its backwardness has its roots in the system of governance its rulers had been imposing on it from the time the value and importance of its natural resources had become known to the world.

To understand Iran's present situation, we need to learn about its past and then pick up from it the cause or causes that had been planting roadblocks on its path of development and prosperity.

Iran has a long and rich history. Once a cradle of Zoroastrianism, village life began there in circa 4000 BC. The Aryans came about 2000 BC and split into two main groups, the Medes and the Persians. The Persian Empire founded (c.550 BC) by Cyrus the Great was succeeded, after a period of Greek and Parthian rule, by the Sassanid in the early 3d century AD. Their control was weakened when Arab invaders took (636) the capital, Ctesiphon; it ended when the Arabs defeated the Sassanid armies at Nahavand in 641. With the invasion of Persia the Arabs brought Islam. The Turks began invading in the 10th century and soon established several Turkish states. The Turks were followed by the Mongols, led by Jenghiz Khan in the 13th century and Timur in the late 14th century.

The Safavid dynasty (1502-1736), founded by Shah Ismail , restored internal order in Iran and established the Shiite sect of Islam as the state religion; it reached its height during the reign (1587-1629) of Shah Abbas I (Abbas the Great). He drove out the Portuguese, who had established colonies on the Persian Gulf early in the 16th century. Shah Abbas also established trade relations with Great Britain and reorganized the army. Religious differences led to frequent wars with the Ottoman Turks, whose interest in Iran was to continue well into the 20th century.

The fall of the Safavid dynasty was brought about by the Afghans, who overthrew the weak shah, Husein, in 1722. An interval of Afghan rule followed until Nadir Shah expelled them and established (1736) the Afshar dynasty. He invaded India in 1738 and brought back fabulous wealth, including the legendary Peacock Throne and the Koh-i-noor diamond. Nadir Shah, a despotic ruler, was assassinated in 1747. The Afshar dynasty was followed by the Zand dynasty (1750-94), founded by Karim Khan, who established his capital at Shiraz and adorned that city with many fine buildings. His rule brought a period of peace and renewed prosperity. However, the country was soon again in turmoil, which lasted until the advent of Aga Muhammad Khan .

The Qajar Dynasty


A detested ruler (assassinated 1797), Aga Muhammad Khan defeated the last ruler of the Zand dynasty and established the Qajar dynasty (1794-1925). This long period saw Iran steadily lose territory to neighboring countries and fall under the increasing pressure of European nations, particularly czarist Russia. Under Fath Ali Shah (1797-1834), Persian claims in the entire Caucasian area were challenged by the Russians in a long struggle that ended with the Treaty of Gulistan (1813) and the Treaty of Turkmanchay (1828), by which Iran was forced to give up the Caucasian lands. Herat, the rich city on the Hari Rud, which had been part of the ancient Persian Empire, was taken by the Afghans. A series of campaigns to reclaim it ended with the intervention of the British {on behalf of Afghanistan and resulted in its recognition by Iran, in 1857, as an independent country}.

The discovery of oil in the early 1900s intensified the rivalry of Great Britain and Russia for power over the nation. Internally, the early 20th century. saw the rise of the constitutional movement and a constitution establishing a parliament was accepted by the Shah in 1906. Meanwhile, the British-Russian rivalry continued and in 1907 resulted in an Anglo-Russian agreement (annulled after World War I) that divided Iran into spheres of influence. The period preceding World War I was one of political and financial difficulty. During the war, Iran was occupied by the British and Russians but remained neutral; after the war, Iran was admitted to the League of Nations as an original member.

In 1919, Iran made a trade agreement with Great Britain in which Britain formally reaffirmed Iran's independence but actually attempted to establish a complete protectorate over it. After Iranian recognition of the USSR in a treaty of 1921, the Soviet Union renounced czarist imperialistic policies toward Iran, canceled all debts and concessions, and withdrew occupation forces from Iranian territory. In 1921, Reza Khan, an army officer, affected a coup and established a military dictatorship.

The Pahelvi Dynasty


Reza Khan was subsequently (in 1925) elected hereditary Shah, thus ending the Qajar dynasty and founding the new Pahlevi dynasty. Reza Shah Pahlevi abolished the British treaty, reorganized the army, introduced many reforms, and encouraged the development of industry and education. In Aug., 1941, two months after the German invasion of the USSR, British and Soviet forces occupied Iran. On Sept. 16 the shah abdicated in favor of his son Muhammad Reza Shah Pahlevi . American troops later entered Iran to handle the delivery of war supplies to the USSR.

At the Tehran Conference in 1943 the Tehran Declaration, signed by the United States, Great Britain, and the USSR, guaranteed Iran the independence and territorial integrity. However, the USSR, dissatisfied with the refusal of the Iranian government to grant it oil concessions, fomented a revolt in the north, which led to the establishment, in December of 1945, of the People's Republic of Azerbaijan and the Kurdish People's Republic, headed by Soviet-controlled leaders. When Soviet troops remained in Iran following the expiration, in January, 1946, of a wartime treaty that also allowed the presence of American and British troops, Iran protested to the United Nations. The Soviets finally withdrew, in May, 1946, after receiving a promise of oil concessions from Iran subject to approval by the parliament. The Soviet-established governments in the north, lacking popular support, were deposed by Iranian troops late in 1946. The Iranian subsequently rejected the oil concessions.

In 1951, the National Front movement, headed by Premier Mussadegh , a militant nationalist, forced the parliament to nationalize the oil industry and form the National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC). Although a British blockade led to the virtual collapse of the oil industry and serious internal economic troubles, Mussadegh continued his nationalization policy. Openly opposed by the Shah, Mussadegh was ousted in 1952 but quickly regained power. The shah fled Iran but returned when monarchist elements forced Mussadegh from office in August., 1953; covert U.S. activity was largely responsible for Mussadegh's ousting.

Starting in the 1960s and continuing into the 1970s, the Iranian government, at the Shah's initiative, undertook a broad program designed to improve economic and social conditions. Land reform was a major priority. In an effort to transform the feudal peasant-landlord agricultural system, the government purchased estates and sold the land to the people; it also distributed large tracts of crown land. In a January, 1963, referendum, the voters overwhelmingly approved the Shah's extensive plan for further land redistribution, compulsory education, and a system of profit sharing in industry; the program was financed by the selling of government-owned factories to private investors. Within three years, 1.5 million former tenant farmers were plot owners.

The Shah held close reins on the government as absolute monarch, but he moved toward certain democratic reforms within Iran. A new government-backed political party, the Iran Novin party, was introduced and won an overwhelming majority in the parliament in the 1963 and subsequent elections. Women received the right to vote in national elections in 1963.

Reaction, Repression and Conflict


The Shah's various reform programs and the continuing poor economic conditions alienated some of the major religious and political groups, and riots occurred in mid-1963. The general political instability was reflected by the assassination of Premier Hassan Ali Mansur and an unsuccessful attempt on the Shah's life in January, 1965. Amir Abbas Hoveida succeeded as premier. In Oct., 1971, Iran commemorated the 2500th anniversary of the Persian Achaemenid Empire of Cyrus the Great with an elaborate celebration in the desert at Persepolis. Iran's pro-Western policies continued into the 1970s; however, opposition to such growing Westernization and secularization was strongly denounced by the Islamic clergy, headed by the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini , who had been exiled from Iran in 1964. Internal opposition within the country was regularly purged by the Shah's secret police force (SAVAK), created in 1957.

Improved relations in the 1970s, especially in the economic sphere, were established with Communist countries, including the USSR. However, relations with Iraq were antagonistic for much of the late 1960s and early 1970s, in great part due to conflict over the Shatt al Arab waterway. A number of armed clashes took place along the entire length of the border. In Apr., 1969, Iran voided the 1937 accord with Iraq on the control of the Shatt al Arab and demanded that the treaty, which had given Iraq virtual control of the river, be renegotiated.

In 1971, Britain withdrew its military forces from the Persian Gulf. Concerned that Soviet-backed Arab nations might try to fill the power vacuum created by the British withdrawal, Iran increased its defense budget by almost 50%, and with the help of huge U.S. and British defense programs, emerged as the region's strongest military power. Although Iran renounced all claims to Bahrain in 1970, it took control, in November of 1971, of three small, Arab-owned islands at the mouth of the Persian Gulf. Iraq protested Iran's action by expelling thousands of Iranian nationals.

In the aftermath of the Arab-Israeli War of October, 1973, Iran, reluctant to use oil as a political weapon, did not participate in the oil embargo against the United States, Europe, Japan, and Israel. However, it used the situation to become a leader in the raising of oil prices in disregard of the Tehran Agreement of 1971. Iran utilized the revenue generated by price rises to bolster its position abroad as a creditor, to initiate domestic programs of modernization and economic development, and to increase its military power.

The Islamic Revolution


The rapid growth of industrialization and modernization programs within Iran, accompanied by ostentatious private wealth, became a source of great resentment fo the bulk of the population, mainly in the overcrowded urban areas and among the rural poor. The Shah's autocratic rule and his extensive use of the secret police led to widespread popular unrest throughout 1978. The religious-based protests were conservative in nature, directed against the Shah's policies. Khomeini, who was expelled from Iraq in Februay, 1978, called for the abdication of the Shah. Martial law was declared in September for all major cities. As governmental controls faltered, the Shah fled Iran on January 16, 1979. Khomeini returned, and led religious revolutionaries to the final overthrow of the Shah's government on February 11 {of the same year}.

The new {Islamic} government represented a major shift toward conservatism. It nationalized industries and banks and revived Islamic traditions. Western influence and music were banned, women were forced to return to traditional veiled dress, and Westernized elites fled the country. A new constitution was written allowing for a presidential system, but Khomeini remained at the executive helm. Clashes occurred between rival religious factions throughout 1979, as oil prices fell. {Arrests and repressions became a way of life}.

The War with Iraq and its Aftermath


On September 22, 1980, Iraq invaded Iran, commencing an eight-year war primarily over the disputed Shatt al Arab waterway. Fighting crippled both nations, devastating Iran's military supply and oil industry, and led to an estimated 500,000 to one million casualties. Khomeini rejected diplomatic initiatives and called for the overthrow of Iraq's president, Saddam Hussein. {After prolonging the brutal and devastating war for nearly eight years, Khomeini agreed in August of 1988 to accept a UN cease-fire with Iraq, ending thus ending the war}.

Khomeini, the Supreme Religious Leader of Iran, died in 1989. He was succeeded by Iran's president, Sayid Ali Khamenei. The presidency was filled by Ali Akbar Rafsanjani. He was reelected president in 1993.

In 1997, Mohammed Khatami , a moderately liberal Muslim cleric, was elected president. {His election} was widely seen as a reaction against the country's repressive social policies and lack of economic progress. Also in 1997, Iran launched a series of air attacks on Iraq to bomb Iranian rebels operating from Iraq.

In 1999, as new curbs were put on a free press, prodemocracy student demonstrations erupted at Teheran Univ. and other urban campuses. These were followed by a wave of counter demonstrations by hard-line factions associated with Ayatollah Khamenei. Reformers won a substantial victory in the Feb., 2000, parliamentary elections, capturing about two thirds of the seats, but conservative elements in the government forced the closure of the reformist press. Attempts by parliament to repeal restrictive press laws were forbidden by Khamenei. Despite these conditions, President Khatami was overwhelming reeelcted in June, 2001. Tensions between reformers in parliament and conservatives in the judiciary and the Guardian Council, over both social and economic changes, increased after Khatami's reelection. In Aug., 2002, frustrated Khatami called for legislation to limit the powers of the Guardian Council and restore presidential powers to act as head of state and enforce the constitution, and in June, 2003, there were ongoing demonstrations by students in Tehran in favor of reform (Taken from the Iranian Website, to which, this author also has added his thoughts).

Before ending my discussion on Iran, I want to dwell briefly on the economic health of Israel so that we may be able to find out where the former stands, in its economic strength, with that of the latter. For engaging in the exercise, we will need to find out the resources both these countries have in their possession.

Iran: It has a proven oil reserve of 94.39 billion barrels. It is able to produce 3.804 million barrel of oil each day (2001 estimate). After consuming 1.277 million barrels domestically, it can and exported 2.527 barrels a day to other oil hungry nations of the world.

Iran also holds a proven reserve of 24.8 trillion cu m of natural gas. In 2002, it produced 61.5 billion cu m of it. To meet its local needs, Iran imported only 4.2 billion barrels of gas to offset the shortfall it had in its domestic production.

Apart from the natural resources it has beneath its soil, Iran also produces, and exports wheat, rice, other grains, sugar beets, fruits, nuts, cotton, dairy products, wool and caviar.

Israel: In comparison to Iran's size, Israel is like a drop in the ocean. Sitting on just 20,770 Sq. km of land, and with a population of 6.117 million Jews (2002 estimate), Israel has no natural resources to turn the wheels of its economic. Deprived by nature, it depends on imports of crude oil, grains, raw materials; this despite the fact that it has intensively developed its agricultural and industrial sectors in the past 20 years.

February 10, 2004